Gender reference
Chapter 9: Africa
Executive Summary
Adaptation
Gender-sensitive and equity-based adaptation approaches reduce vulnerability for marginalised groups across multiple sectors in Africa, including water, health, food systems and livelihoods (high confidence). {9.7.3, 9.8.3, 9.9.5, 9.10.3, 9.11.4, Boxes 9.1, 9.2}
9.4 Climate Resilient Development
9.4.2 Governance
9.4.2.1 Governance Barriers
Overcoming governance barriers is a precondition to ensure successful adaptation and CRD (Pasquini et al., 2015; Owen, 2020). Despite the ambitious climate targets across African countries and renewed commitments in recent years (Zheng et al., 2019; Ozor and Nyambane, 2020), governance barriers include, among others, slow policy implementation progress (Shackleton et al., 2015; Taylor, 2016), incoherent and fragmented approaches (Zinngrebe et al., 2020; Nemakonde et al., 2021), inadequate governance systems to manage climate finance (Granoff et al., 2016; Banga, 2019), poor stakeholder participation (Sherman and Ford, 2014), gender inequalities (Andrijevic et al., 2020), unaligned development and climate agendas (MusahSurugu et al., 2019; Robinson, 2020), elite capture of climate governance systems (Kita, 2019), hierarchical and complex state bureaucracy (Meissner and Jacobs, 2016; Biesbroek et al., 2018) and weak, nonexistent or fragmented sub-national institutions (Paterson et al., 2017; Musah-Surugu et al., 2019).
Table 9.3 | Characteristics and examples of governance that contribute towards CRD in Africa.
| Governance characteristic | Example |
| [...] |
| Inclusive and diverse stakeholders | Kenya’s Climate Change Directorate has a designated team to integrate gender into its national climate policies (Murray, 2019), while Seychelles’ National Climate Change Council has allocated a seat exclusively for a youth candidate (Government of The Seychelles, 2020). Tanzanian Climate-Smart Agriculture Alliance supports the integration of farmers and builds strategic alliances to support climate processes (Nyasimi et al., 2017). |
| Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) implementation | Rwanda has developed an indicator-based monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) framework for tracking its NDC implementation and associated financial flows (Government of Republic of Rwanda, 2020). Zambia has also integrated gender indicators into its NDC implementation plan and is incorporating gender considerations into its MRV framework (Murray, 2019). |
9.4.5 Climate Services, Perception and Literacy
9.4.5.1 Climate Information and Services
Table 9.4 | Challenges and opportunities for Climate Services in Africa for the supply and uptake of climate services.
| Challenges | Opportunities/solutions | References | Examples of programmes that address these challenges |
| Use of Climate Services |
| Insufficient access to usable data, including station data, and information suited to the decision context (including accessibility limitations based on gender and social inequalities) | – Capacity development initiatives for Climate Services providers, intermediaries (including extension agents, NGO workers and others) and users – User needs assessments – Consistent monitoring and evaluation of Climate Services interventions | Jones et al. (2015); Winrock (2018); Hansen et al. (2019a); Hansen et al. (2019c); Mercy Corps (2019); Nkiaka et al. (2019); Carr et al. (2020); Cullmann et al. (2020); Gumucio et al. (2020); Sultan et al. (2020) Figure 9.11 | Kenya, Ethiopia, Ghana, Niger and Malawi (ALP Programme) Co-production of relevant information for decision making and planning at seasonal time scales. The methods and media for communication and messages differ between different users. Strong emphasis on participation by women. |
9.4.5.3 Climate Change Literacy
As the identified factors driving climate change literacy overlap with broader developmental challenges on the continent, policies targeting these factors (e.g., increased education) can potentially yield co-benefits for both climate change adaptation as well as progress towards SDGs, particularly education and gender equality (Simpson et al., 2021a). Progress towards greater climate change literacy affords a concrete opportunity to mainstream climate change within core national and sub-national developmental agendas in Africa towards more CRD pathways. Synergies with CS can also overcome gendered deficits, for example, although women are generally less climate change aware and more vulnerable to climate change than men in Africa, they are generally more likely to adopt climate-resilient crops when they are climate change aware and have exposure to extension services (Acevedo et al., 2020; Simpson et al., 2021a).
Figure 9.12 | The inclusive nature of co-production has had a positive influence on the uptake of climate services into decision making in Africa. Selected examples of the co-production of climate services and the sectors involved. Icons indicate sectors and numbers show the programmes under which the co-production engagements occurred. Programmes listed are (1) AMMA-2050: Combining Scenario Games, Participatory Modelling and Theatre Forums to Co-produce Climate Information for Medium-term Planning, (2,3) BRACED: Sharing Lessons on Promoting Gender Equality through a ‘Writeshop’, (4) RCSA: Bringing Climate Services to People Living in Rwanda’s Rural Areas, (5) ALP: Participatory Scenario Planning for Local Seasonal Climate Forecasts and Advisories, (6) Climate Risk Narratives: Co-producing Stories of the Future, (7) ENACTS: Developing Climate Services for Malaria Surveillance and Control in Tanzania, (8) FATHUM: Forecast for Anticipatory Humanitarian Action, (9) FRACTAL: Learning Labs, Dialogues and Embedded Researchers in Southern African Cities, (10) FONERWA: Climate Risk Screening Tool, (11) MHEWS: Multi-hazard Early Warning System for Coastal Tanzania, (12) Resilient Transport Strategic Assessment for Dar es Salaam, (13) RRA: Climate Attribution for Extreme Weather Events in Ethiopia and Kenya, (14) UMFULA: Co-producing Climate Information for Medium-term Planning in the Water-Energy-Food Nexus, (15) IRRP: Building Resilience in Tanzania’s Energy Sector Planning, (16) PRISE: Co-exploring Relevant Evidence for Policy Change in Kenya, (17) NMA ENACTS: An Example of a Co-produced Climate Service Fit for Purpose, (18) REACH: Improving Water Security for the Poor in Turkana County, Kenya, (19) DARAJA: Co-designing Weather and Climate Information Services for and with Urban Informal Settlements in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam, (20) ForPAc: Co-producing Approaches to Forecast-based Early Action for Drought and Floods in Kenya, (21) HIGHWAY: Co-produced Impact-based Early Warnings and Forecasts to Support Fishing Communities on Lake Victoria, (22) HyCRISTAL: Using Video to Initiate Farmer Dialogue with Local Government in Mukono, Uganda, (23) SCIPEA: Co-produced Seasonal Forecasts for More Effective Management of Hydropower Supply in Kenya, (24) Weather Wise: Co-producing Weather and Climate Radio Content for Farmers, Fishermen and Pastoralists in East Africa. See Carter et al. (2020) for details and outcomes of each engagement. Source: Carter et al. (2020).
Please refer to page 1329 to see Figure 7.4, which mentions gender.
Box 9.1 | Vulnerability Synthesis Vulnerability in Africa is socially, culturally and geographically differentiated among climatic regions, countries and local communities, with climate change impacting the health, livelihoods and food security of different groups to different extents (Gan et al., 2016; Onyango et al., 2016a; Gumucio et al., 2020). This synthesis emphasises intersectionality within vulnerable groups as well as their position within dynamic social and cultural contexts (Wisner, 2016; Kuran et al., 2020), and highlights the differential impacts of climate change and restricted adaptation options available to vulnerable groups across African countries (see also Cross-Chapter Box GENDER in Chapter 18). Vulnerability and exposure to the impacts of climate change are complex and affected by multiple, interacting non-climatic processes, which together influence risk, including socioeconomic processes (Lwasa et al., 2018; UNCTAD, 2020), resource access and livelihood changes (Jayne et al., 2019b) and intersectional vulnerability among social groups (Figure Box 9.1.1; Rao et al., 2020). Socioeconomic processes encompass broader social, economic and governance trends, such as expanded investment in large energy and transportation infrastructure projects (Adeniran and Daniell, 2020), rising external debt (Edo et al., 2020), changing role of the state in social development (Wunsch, 2014), environmental management (Ramutsindela and Büscher, 2019) and conflict, as well as those emanating from climate change mitigation and adaptation projects (Beymer-Farris and Bassett, 2012; van Baalen and Mobjörk, 2018; Simpson et al., 2021b). These macro trends shape both urban and rural livelihoods, including the growing diversification of rural livelihoods through engagement in the informal sector and other non-farm activities, and are mediated by complex and intersecting factors like gender, ethnicity, class, age, disability and other dimensions of social status that influence access to resources (Luo et al., 2019). Research increasingly highlights the intersectionality of multiple dimensions of social identity and status that are associated with greater susceptibility to loss and damage (Caparoci Nogueira et al., 2018; Li et al., 2018). |
Figure Box 9.1.1 | Factors contributing to the progression of vulnerability to climate change in African contexts considering socioeconomic processes, resource access, livelihood changes, and intersectional vulnerability among social groups. This figure reflects a synthesis of vulnerability across sections of this chapter and highlights how the interactions of multiple dimensions of vulnerability compound each other to increase overall vulnerability (Potts, 2008; Nielsen and Reenberg, 2010; Akresh et al., 2011; Eriksen et al., 2011; Beymer-Farris and Bassett, 2012; Davis et al., 2012; Adom, 2014; Akello, 2014; Headey and Jayne, 2014; Otzelberger, 2014; Wunsch, 2014; Conteh, 2015; Huntjens and Nachbar, 2015; Spencer, 2015; Adetula et al., 2016; Djoudi et al., 2016; Kuper et al., 2016; Stark and Landis, 2016; Allard, 2017; Anderson, 2017; Asfaw et al., 2017; Hufe and Heuermann, 2017; Hulme, 2017; Paul and wa Gĩthĩnji, 2017; Rao et al., 2017; Serdeczny et al., 2017; Tesfamariam and Zinyengere, 2017; Tierney et al., 2017; Waha et al., 2017; Chihambakwe et al., 2018; Cholo et al., 2018; Jenkins et al., 2018; Keahey, 2018; Lwasa et al., 2018; Makara, 2018; Nyasimi et al., 2018; Petesch et al., 2018; Schuman et al., 2018; Theis et al., 2018; van Baalen and Mobjörk, 2018; van der Zwaan et al., 2018; Adepoju, 2019; Adzawla et al., 2019b; Bryceson, 2019; Grasham et al., 2019; Jayne et al., 2019a; Lowe et al., 2019; Lunga et al., 2019; OGAR and Bassey, 2019; Onwutuebe, 2019; Ramutsindela and Büscher, 2019; Sulieman and Young, 2019; Torabi and Noori, 2019; Adeniran and Daniell, 2020; Alexander, 2020; Clay and Zimmerer, 2020; Devonald et al., 2020; Dolislager et al., 2020; Edo et al., 2020; Kaczan and Orgill-Meyer, 2020; Lammers et al., 2020; World Bank, 2020b; Asiama et al., 2021; Azong and Kelso, 2021; Birgen, 2021; Paalo and Issifu, 2021; Simpson et al., 2021b).
Please refer to page 1331 to see Figure 7.4, which mentions gender.
Knowledge gaps on Vulnerability in Africa and Uneven Acces to Resources The differential impacts of climate change and adaptation options available to vulnerable groups in Africa are a critical knowledge gap. More research is needed to examine the intersection of different dimensions of social status on climate change vulnerability in Africa (Thompson-Hall et al., 2016; Oluwatimilehin and Ayanlade, 2021). More analysis of vulnerability based on gender and other social and cultural factors is needed to fully understand the impacts of climate change, the interaction of divergent adaptive strategies, as well as the development of targeted adaptation and mitigation strategies, for example, for women in patrilineal kinship systems, people living with disabilities, youth, girls and the elderly. Finally, there is an urgent need to build capacity among those conducting vulnerability assessments, so that they are familiar with this intersectionality lens. Additional information and capacity development through education and early warning systems could enhance vulnerable groups’ ability to cope and adapt their livelihoods (Jaka and Shava, 2018). However, some groups of people may struggle to translate information into actual changes (Makate et al., 2019; McOmber et al., 2019). Lack of access to assets and social networks, for example, among older populations, are critical limitations to locally driven or autonomous adaptation and limit potential benefits from planned adaptation actions (e.g., adoption of agricultural technologies or effective use of early warning systems). There is an urgent need for societal and political change to realise potential benefits for these vulnerable groups in the long term (Nyasimi et al., 2018). There is a need for gender-sensitive climate change policies in many African countries and gender-responsive policies, implementation plans and budgets for all local-level initiatives (Wrigley-Asante et al., 2019). |
9.7 Water
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9.7.2 Projected Risks and Vulnerability
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9.7.2.2 Vulnerability
The literature shows significant gender-differentiated vulnerability and intersectional vulnerability to climate change impacts on water in Africa (Fleifel et al., 2019; Grasham et al., 2019; Mackinnon et al., 2019; Dickin et al., 2020; Lund Schlamovitz and Becker, 2020), although studies are generally lacking in northern Africa (Daoud, 2021). Women and girls are, in most cases, more impacted than men and boys by customary water practices, as adult females are the primary water collectors (46% in Liberia to 90% in Cote d’Ivoire), while more female than male children are associated with water collection (62% compared with 38%, respectively) (Graham et al., 2016). Women and girls face barriers toward accessing basic sanitation and hygiene resources, and 71% of studies reported a negative health outcome, reflecting a water–gender– health nexus (Pouramin et al., 2020). These differential vulnerabilities are crucial for informing adaptation, but are still relatively under-researched, more so for the urban poor than rural communities (Grasham et al., 2019; Mackinnon et al., 2019; Lund Schlamovitz and Becker, 2020).
9.7.3.6 Mainstreaming Gender Across all Adaptation Options
Gender is important in building resilience and adaptation pathways to global environmental change (Ravera et al., 2016). It is well-established that women, in most societies, have accumulated considerable knowledge about water resources, including location, quality and storage methods because they are primarily responsible for the management of water for household water supply, sanitation and health, and for productive uses in subsistence agriculture (UN-Water, 2006). As gender-differentiated relationships are complex, adaptation should take into account intersectional differences such as homeownership, employment and age (Harris et al., 2016), educational, infrastructural and programmatic interventions (Pouramin et al., 2020), aspects of protection and safety (Mackinnon et al., 2019), barriers to adaptation and gendered differences in the choice of adaptation measures (Mersha and Van Laerhoven, 2016), the complex power dynamics of existing social and political relations (Djoudi et al., 2016; Rao et al., 2017), and inclusion and empowerment of women in the management of environmental resources (Makina and Moyo, 2016). Incorporation of gender and water inequities into climate change adaptation would have a significant impact on achieving the SDGs (particularly 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6), while failure to incorporate gender will undermine adaptation efforts (Bunce and Ford, 2015; Fleifel et al., 2019; Pouramin et al., 2020).
9.8 Food Systems
9.8.1 Vulnerability to Observed and Projected Impacts from Climate Change
Their vulnerability is multi-dimensional and affected by low adaptive capacity, location, livelihood system, socioeconomic status, gender, age and ethnicity (Perez et al., 2015; Weston et al., 2015; Gebre and Rahut, 2021; see also Box 9.1).
9.8.3 Adapting to Climate Variability and Change in Agriculture
Non-climatic variables, such as financial resources, access to information and technology, level of education, land security and gender dynamics affect feasibility and adoption (Makate et al., 2019; Mutenje et al., 2019).
9.10 Health
9.10.1 The Influence of Social Determinants of Health on the Impacts of Climate Change
Nevertheless, there is robust evidence that the health impacts of climate change disproportionately affect the poorest people and children and, in some situations, can differ by gender and age (St Louis and Hess, 2008; Nyahunda et al., 2020; Ragavan et al., 2020; see Box 9.1). Unequal access to health care particularly affects rural communities (Falchetta et al., 2020), vulnerable women and children (Wigley et al., 2020a) and challenges the achievement of development priorities such as universal health care access (SDG 3) (Weiss et al., 2020).
9.10.2 Observed Impacts and Projected Risks
9.10.2.2 Diarrhoeal Diseases, HIV and Other Infectious Diseases
9.10.2.2.1 Diarrhoeal diseases
Observed impacts
Changes in climate affect each of the main drivers of HIV transmission in women, including poverty, inequity and gender-based violence (Burke et al., 2015a; Loevinsohn, 2015; Fiorella et al., 2019).
9.10.3 Adaptation for Health and Well-being in Africa
9.10.3.2 Community Engagement
Interventions specifically targeting women are beneficial for food security, although they may be undermined by harmful gender norms in communities that are patriarchal, led by chiefs or have high rates of gender-based violence (Jaka and Shava, 2018; Kita, 2019; Masson et al., 2019). The BRACED project in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia specifically adopted a gender-transformative approach as an integral part of resilience building (McOmber et al., 2019). Improving ‘climate literacy’ could empower youth, women and men to be active citizens in promoting adherence of governments to international agreements in climate change (Mudombi et al., 2017; Chersich et al., 2019a).
9.11 Economy, Poverty and Livelihoods
9.11.4 Climate Change Adaptation to Reduce Vulnerability, Poverty and Inequality
In contrast, adaptation actions can be designed in ways that actively work towards reducing inequality, whether gender, income, employment, education or otherwise (Andrijevic et al., 2020).
In rural Africa, poor and female-headed households face greater livelihood risks from climate hazards (high confidence). Women often constitute a high proportion of the informal workforce and are also more likely to be unemployed than men (ILO, 2018a). These factors leave women, and particularly female-headed households, at greater risk of poverty and food insecurity from climate hazards. Controlling for multiple factors, income of femaleheaded households in agricultural districts in South Africa is more vulnerable to precipitation variability than those headed by men (Davidson, 2016; Flatø et al., 2017). Across nine countries in east and west Africa women tend to control smaller plots of land that is often of poorer quality, have less access to inputs such as fertilizer, tools and improved seeds, have lower educational attainment and benefit less from extension services, government agencies and nongovernmental organisations (Perez et al., 2015). Gender assessments prior to adaptation programmes can identify disparities in division of labour and income and socio-cultural norms, hindering women from holding leadership positions or determining livelihood and resource-use activities, thereby helping ensure equitable benefits from livelihood diversification and improving women’s working conditions (ILO, 2018a). Gender-responsive policy instruments can measure success using sex-disaggregated data to monitor impact and meaningful participation in decision making (GCF, 2018b).
Box 9.9 | Climate Change and Security: Interpersonal Violence and Large-scale Civil Conflict Literature on the gender dimension of climate adaptation in conflict-affected countries is also limited (Sitati et al., 2021). |
